Other Treaties – The Past Changes a Little Every Time We Retell It

Austria and the Treaty of St. Germain, September 1919

The Big Four or Supreme Council did not give Austria as much thought as other countries. The Austrian delegation behaved impeccably during their time in Paris, being both patient and accommodating. Perhaps, for this reason, the Supreme Council dealt with more forceful nations before them.
As a result, the deal put before the Austrian delegation was rushed and largely copied from that of the Germans. For example, Austria was told they could no longer have any submarines!
A key difficulty for the Supreme Council was the reparations issue with Austria-Hungary. Who would pay them? If the empire was to be broken up, then which nationality should foot the bill? New countries such as Czechoslovakia said they did not take the decision in 1914 to go to war, it was the government in Vienna. The British foreign secretary explained it well when he asked how could you make a country which relies on charity to even exist, pay any debts.
The Supreme Council postponed making a decision on Austrian reparations, ordering a commission to make the decision in the near future. It did so two years later, its conclusion was that Austria could not afford to pay any!
Italy wanted territory in Austia (Tyrol – it is a mountainous region so a defensive barrier) but did not want Yugoslavia to have any. This was given to Italy which led to anger and mourning in the country.
Austria had huge economic problems as a result of the war. The Allied blockade was lifted in March 1919 and it received much-needed aid.
Austria wanted to remain close to Germany after the war (for protection and prosperity), possibly even becoming a member of the federation. It was hardly likely to be a political or military threat to France or Italy in the future but the Allies were anxious that a union could be in the future. The Anschluss was forbidden, angering nationalists in Austria but also keeping others content – many people were Catholics and did not want to join a Protestant country, even some nationalists did not want to replace their capital city, Vienna, with Berlin.
The nationalists’ view did not disappear as in 1938, Nazi Germany and Austria were able to sign the Anschluss.
The Austrian army was limited to 30 000 men and broke up their navy, distributing it amongst the allies.
Reparations were expected to be paid and even though they were set after the treaty ended, Austria did not pay anything.
At the start of World War One, Austro-Hungary had been an empire of 30 million people and covered 116,000 square miles. By the signing of the Treaty of St. Germain, Austria was a land-locked nation with a population of 6 million and covered just 32,400 square miles. (HistoryLearning)

Bulgaria and the Treaty of Neuilly, November 1919

Bulgaria fought on the side of the Central Powers from October 1915, helping to defeat Serbia in November the same year. However, being on the losing side, she was not represented in Paris.
Her armies collapsed in September 1918 and she was the first Central Power to surrender. This may have had a domino effect in ending the war in November.
Although Bulgaria lost the war, its people blamed unscrupulous politicians for joining the war, she had her own list of demands. These included all of Thrace, especially Macedonia. The Allies felt she did not deserve any of this and gave parts of Bulgaria away instead.
Southern Dobrudja was given to Rumania and areas of western Bulgaria were given to Yugoslavia (they wanted more but Italy complained and the land was reduced). The former had a slight Bulgarian majority so this went against the idea of self-determination and angered the country. Unfortunately, President Wilson had left Europe by the time Neuilly was being discussed in the summer of 1919.
Bulgaria lost 10% of its land, had to pay￡90million (which it defaulted on) and was restricted to an army of 20 000 (it was over 600 000 in 1915).
As with Hungary and Austria, Bulgaria was angry with these punishments and joined the Axis during the Second World War to reclaim lands which it thought were theirs. It was successful in taking parts of Thrace and reclaiming southern Dobrudjia but only kept the latter after the war was lost.

From the Treaty of Neuilly,

Hungary and the Treaty of Trianon, June 1920

Hungary was not initially a major concern for the peacemakers in Paris (the country was seen as backward despite having an elegant capital city in Budapest). But it became so when Bela Kun seized power and the country became communist.
Its leaders looked to Britain as a protector initially but then, like most countries, sought the assistance of Wilson and the USA. His Fourteen Points and especially the ‘self-determination clause’ made him popular across the world.
The Allies were suspicious of Hungarian motives as the aristocrats who pleaded for self-determination owned most of the land (why give concessions when most of their people would not benefit) and these were the same men who led Austro-Hungary into war against them.
The Hungarians were in a weak position when the conference began, enemy soldiers were stationed in their country, many of which from nations who wanted their land – Czechs, Serbians, Rumanians, and Yugoslavs. Its economy was also suffering and its people hungry. The allies in Paris did little to help ease these burdens.
Britain preferred to side with its First World War ally Rumania in acquiring the Hungarian lands of Transylvania. This was actually promised to them in the 1916 Treaty of Bucharest which brought the country into war.
France also supported Rumania over its territorial ambitions against Hungary as Clemenceau saw the country as a bulwark against Bolshevik expansion. France supported Rumania and the Czechs in ousting Kun’s new communist government.
However, the allies eventually realised that if they allowed events to continue without acting, Hungary could cease to exist and millions of Hungarians would be living under foreign rule, leading to potential problems in the future.
The Treaty of Trianon was late in being put together and signed because the allies had it low on their list on priorities and because of the war they had helped cause in Hungary.
The Treaty made Hungary pay huge reparations and made three and a half million Hungarians live outside its borders. Its leaders complained, especially about the lack of self-determination, but the allies supported their allies (Rumania, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia) rather than change any treaty.
The Hungarian Army was also limited to 35 000 (Austria-Hungary was 450 000 in 1914).
On the day the Treaty of Trianon was signed, public buildings lowered flags to half-mast and ‘Trianon’ became shorthand for allied cruelty.
The reparations commission ordered Hungary to pay reparations in gold and materials. It met its obligations for a few years but, as the Allies had to keep giving loans, decided to suspend them. In 1930, they were rescheduled to restart in 1944 (owing to the Depression) but the world was a very different place then.
Hungarians resented Trianon and joined the revisionist powers, Hitler’s Germany and Mussolini’s Italy, in the 1930s to change it. During the Second World War, Hungary was able to take back some of the lands it felt were theirs but the Allies restored the Trianon boundaries in 1945…which are the same today.

Russia and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 1918

This is not usually considered a post-war treaty but it is important so you understand the context of the decisions made in Paris.

The Bolsheviks seized power in October 1917 with the promise to the people that they would withdraw from the First World War. However, they delayed the negotiations with Germany in the hope that the Central Powers would lose the war and there would be no need for a treaty. Furthermore, the conditions from Germany were considered too harsh.
However, Germany threatened to invade Russia if a treaty was signed. The Bolsheviks gave in, aware that they needed to consolidate power in the country without the threat of a German attack. A renewed offensive did actually begin by Germany and the ease with which they were successful added more impetus to the Bolsheviks to sign.
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk led to: Russia recognized the independence of Ukraine, Georgia and Finland; gave up Poland and the Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia to Germany and Austria-Hungary; and ceded Kars, Ardahan and Batum to Turkey. This amounted to one-million square miles of territory, one-third of its population and much of its industry.
The peacemakers in Versailles were very aware of the severity of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and this may have influenced their decision-making regarding Germany.

Turkey and the Treaties of Sevres, August 1920, and Lausanne, July 1923

Smyrna was renamed Izmir in the 1930s, as it was a more Turkish sounding name.

The Turks had little sympathy from the peacemakers, the Armenian massacres (up to 1.5 million killed) a key factor.
Italy wanted territory in Asia Minor but Britain and France disagreed. However, the 1915 Treaty of London stated that if Turkey was broken up Italy would get its share.
Italy argued that it would better protect Christians than the Turks could and even civilise the people there. Clearly, it also wanted to expand its empire (and reclaim part of the former Roman Empire). However, this view was different from Italian people as they wanted their government to focus on domestic matters rather than foreign ambitions.
Against Italy’s ambitions were those of the Greeks. They too wanted Asia Minor, also to reclaim lands in their former empire, but also to protect the Greeks who lived there. The latter claim was more persuasive to the peacemakers than the Italians.
The Greeks were very ambitious with their claims after the war. They wanted to take Smyrna from Turkey, a vital port for the country. This was supported by Britain and France because Italy also wanted it – they did not think Italy deserved everything it asked for.
However, the Turks may fight for their land so the Allies, including the US, gave Greece permission to invade. When the first Greek soldiers landed in Smyrna, the city erupted into celebration. But the same day fighting broke out between the Greeks and Turks across the country. General Ataturk was ordered to restore order to the country but instead, he resigned his commission and fought against the demands of the Treaty of Sevres. Full-scale war broke out which the Allies found difficult to control.
As the Allies judged how much of Turkey was to remain after the war, including making their capital city Constantinople an international city, Turkish nationalism grew. Furthermore, the Big Three did not have the support of their governments in dividing up the country. Lloyd George’s foreign secretary Arthur Balfour called it dangerous and his military advisers madness. Even Lord Curzon, the respected minister who knew the Middle East, was ignored.
Finally, Lloyd George realised that it was also incredibly risky to the British Empire and its hold on predominantly Muslim states for her to destroy the centre of the Islamic world. This convinced Lloyd George to abandon an Italian mandate in Asia Minor and even to restrict French control too. The latter led to a huge row with Clemenceau with reports that a duel was even threatened. He was angry that Lloyd George had not supported him in acquiring all of Syria, including Palestine.
But Clemenceau eventually changed his mind over Greek claims to Asia Minor as French banks held 60% of Turkish debt.
A US mandate was suggested but this idea did not succeed in the Senate. Furthermore, Wilson fell ill in September 1919 so could not discuss Turkey’s future at that time.
Lord Curzon recommended a new Turkey with Ataturk as its head but Lloyd George disagreed. Furthermore, British forces continued to leave Turkey preferring to get out of the Caucasus. She felt it was too expensive and would only lead to long-term problems if it tried to protect the rights of minorities and states. An example of this was Armenia. It had declared its independence from Turkey in but was threatened by Bolshevik Russia to the north and Ataturk’s nationalist forces to the west. Armenia asked the League (hugely influenced by Britain and France) to help but this was only limited to Britain sending poor quality weapons to them. Armenia felt it had to choose the lesser of two evils and became a Soviet republic.
However, Britain wanted a mandate over Kurdistan. It felt that its position would help its strategic interests and maintain security in the region.

But France opposed Britain’s plan and it only increased Turkish nationalism. Britain satisfied itself in the knowledge that it would gain Mosul, a key city for trade and potential oil.

Treaty of Lausanne, 1923 Modern Turkey Is Born. | Ottoman empire ...

As the war continued, the Allies realised they would have to revise the Treaty of Sevres. None of the peacemakers was prepared to put Ataturk down by committing huge forces, their people had had enough of war so any future military commitments would be both politically and economically expensive. France had troops in the south of the country but did not want to sustain this military garrison, signing a treaty with Ataturk in October 1921.
The Greek forces were finally defeated in August 1922. Ataturk’s forces took Smyrna and very soon fires broke out in the Armenian and Greek quarters. These caused thousands of deaths and many more were killed (possibly over 100 000) or forcibly removed from the city. The Turks exacted their revenge on the Greeks but also targeted the Armenians. The Allies did little to stop these atrocities.

Lloyd George felt that the British garrison at Chanak (Modern Cannakke) was under threat from the Turks and pressed for war. However, part of his government disagreed and the ‘Chanak Crisis‘ removed him from power.
With a change in leadership, there was more urgency to revise Sevres. The Treaty of Lausanne was signed in July 1923, one that was unique as the presence of the Turkish Army meant that a defeated First World War nation actually had leverage over the Allies.