Treaty of Versailles

Some of the common questions regarding the Treaty of Versailles are:

• Was it too harsh?
• Did it lead to the rise of the Nazi Party?
• Did it cause the Second World War?
• Did the political leaders learn lessons from previous treaties such as the Congress of Vienna?
• Is the Treaty only viewed as harsh because of the events of the 1930s and 1940s?

One of the leading historians for this subject is Margaret Macmillan. She gives a lecture in the video below and there is also a podcast featuring her and Niall Ferguson afterwards.

Content

The following is taken from Margaret MacMillan’s Peacemakers unless stated.

• Which countries got what they wanted from the Paris Peace Conferences?
• Who gained the most?
• Who lost, why?
• Which countries were so angry with the results of the conferences that there were significant political recriminations domestically?

Resources

HL students needs to understand the peace treaties in more detail than SL so are expected to read through everything on this page. For SL, the following links will be sufficient.

The Treaty of Versailles

History.com

It is advisable to read Germany and Italy on this page too.

Austria

See Other Treaties

Britain

• Prime Minister Lloyd George was a talented politician and superb orator. He built a good relationship with Wilson and amicable with Clemenceau.
• The leaders of the Big Three (above) preferred to discuss the peace without the use of too many experts. Lloyd George tended to ignore his Foreign Office, a failure as geography was a weakness of his.
• He was aware that the First World War had brought a huge cost to the British Empire. Consequently, the majority of the Army had to be dismantled and this reduced the leverage he had in Paris. However, as the German navy was defeated (and later scuttled), the Royal Navy was dominant once again…though the US were in a position to change this if relations between the two countries deteriorated.
• Lloyd George’s aims at Paris were to maintain the hold on the Empire and to keep Europe peaceful. The latter would help grow the former. Furthermore, as the Dominions and colonies sacrificed so many of their own men for the war, he had to keep them happy. For example, his opposition to the Japanese race equality clause (see Japan below), was perhaps influenced by Australia‘s opposition to it.
• Lloyd George was content with much of the Treaty (acquisitions in the Middle East, Germany losing her colonies) and France had not gained too much to become a potential threat in the future. However, when the Treaty was made public and criticism ensued, Lloyd George attempted to make changes. Wilson saw him as an opportunist and unprincipled as a result.

Bulgaria

See Other Treaties

China

• Many Chinese hoped that the peacemakers would end the interference by the Great Powers in China. They had made a significant contribution to the defeat of Germany (entering the conflict in summer 1917) by supplying thousands of labourers.
• China saw Japan as their key enemy (having fought each other in the 1895 First Sino-Japanese War) at this time.
• Japan’s ambitions included the province of Shantung, having large coal deposits, a fine harbour, and a huge population which could be used for labour. On the other hand, China saw Shantung as the birthplace of Confucius and the base where the Boxer Rebellion began. It was as important to China as Alsace-Lorraine was to France.
• Some Japanese individuals and organisations used financial and political tools to further the country’s aims in China. For example, weapons were supplied to Chinese warlords so that the government would be unstable and less likely to stop Japanese ambitions or actions in the country.
• In January 1915, the Japanese minister in Peking (now Beijing) gave the Chinese government a list of twenty-one demands. They came with a threat of Japan adopting ‘vigorous methods’ if they were refused. Furthermore, there were also other demands which would be issued if China said no, these would effectively turn the country into a Japanese protectorate. On 25 May 1915, Japan forced the Chinese to sign. China declared National Humilation Day as a result. The other powers did little to stop Japan as they needed their assistance against Germany.
• In Japan’s defence, they argued for the ‘Asian Monroe Doctrine‘. Just as the US argued it needed to act anywhere in the Americas to protect its interests, Japan felt the same about Asia. They were fearful of being isolated too, western imperialist powers surrounded them and a China supported by them could only threaten their security.
• However, at Paris, their actions and ambitions over China only brought resentment and distrust from the other Great Powers. Perhaps, this was because their own interests were threatened by a more powerful Japan.
• Japan argued that China had agreed to the twenty-one demands in 1915 and even a deal in 1918 which reaffirmed it (the Chinese delegation in Paris explained they were unaware of this). China argued that ‘both’ were signed under duress and that self-determination should decide matters regarding their country.
• What helped Japan the most was their lack of will in pushing the racial equality clause. The Great Powers did not want another walking out (after Italy did so in April 1919) and so, with the threat of Japan not signing the treaty, gave her what she wanted in China. Furthermore, Lloyd George argued that they could not respect the First World War treaties in Europe (Budapest, London) and not those signed between China and Japan.
• On 3/4 May 1919, a group of students met at Peking University to demonstrate against the decisions made in Paris. Up to 3000 people joined the protest in Tienanmen Square (symbolic to China) which eventually turned violent. It also spread to other cities across the country.
• The student protests had long-term consequences for the country. Many of the leading members joined the new Chinese Communist Party; two of the participants in the May 4 demonstrations were Mao Tse-tung and Zhou Enlai, future leaders of the country.
• China did get Shantung back in discussions at the Washington naval disarmament conference but had to agree to pay Japan far too much for the railway lines in the area.

Czechoslovakia

• The Czechs were respected by the peacemakers in Paris. They had tried for years to gain independence from Austria-Hungary and their foreign minister, Edvard Beneš, was respected by many. The new country of Czechoslovakia began in October 1918 when the Austro-Hungarian Empire fell.
• But whereas Beneš did most of the talking for the Czechs, Milan Štefánik did so for the Slovaks.
• Again, France wanted a strong eastern European country to block any future German aggression. They actually pressed for Czech claims which the US and Britain did not support.
• The Big Four (Italy included) supported the new country’s ambition of including Bohemia within their borders. These included three million German speakers, ignoring the principle of self-determination. The people, Sudetans, actually protested in 1918 and 1919 but they proved ineffective.
• However, the new government promised to allow German speakers to continue with their language for official matters.
• Czechoslovakia attacked the new communist government in Hungary to further their territories (with French support). They lost this conflict and respect from the other Great Powers too.
• Conflict with Poland did not help their reputation either. They tried to take Teschen by force but this also did not end in success. The peacemakers decided to split the city into two but Poland never forgave Czechoslovakia for their aggression, especially as they were fighting for their own survival against Bolshevik Russia at the same time.
• Czechoslovakia gained lands from Hungary, which contained one-million Hungarians and had some successes. But the Czechs were generally more powerful than the Slovaks, leading to the eventual breakup in 1993, and had alienated neighbours through their actions after the First World War.

France

• France under Clemenceau was stubborn, aggressive but equally charming and diplomatic at the Paris Peace Conferences, his mood depended on what part of Europe was being discussed and negotiated.

• The other peacemakers wanted the conference to be at a neutral venue but France insisted it would be in Paris.
• Clemenceau was held in high regard by most French people (not all, President Poincare hated him). After all, he galvanised the country in 1917 to hold together and help win the war in 1918.
• He was suspicious of Germany as a future threat to his country, he was alive during the Franco-Prussian War (when they took huge reparations and land off France) and obviously the First World War when Germany invaded in 1914.
• Clemenceau courted friendship with eastern Europeans as a buffer against Bolshevism and a check to German power. He also wanted the Rhineland to be annexed to France, ensuring greater security for his country. It was apparent that the French valued security more so than revenge or reparations. Clemenceau even agreed to negotiate the latter if the Rhineland was protected by Allied troops and was governed by France.
• To keep Germany weak (as Bismarck had done to France in 1871), Clemenceau wanted the country to pay reparations of £44 billion (Britain wanted £24 billion and the USA £4.4 billion).
• Clemenceau and the French government were aware of the population imbalance between France and Germany. The latter’s birth rate was also higher so France needed greater security against this.
• Clemenceau initially sought the help and cooperation of President Wilson, believing that the US could protect them. He had lived in the US for some time and thought he could count on their assistance. However, the French demands were too ambitious for Wilson and their relationship was not always cordial as a result. It did not help matters that some French soldiers acted as if they had won the war, and that he preferred the Balance of Power to keep the peace in Europe rather than the new League of Nations.
• Furthermore, Clemenceau chose to eat with advisors rather than Wilson and Lloyd George (they did repeatedly). He did not like either, a phrase in Paris at the time was that he had Napoleon Bonaparte on one side and Jesus Christ on the other.
• Just as Wilson and Lloyd George did so, Clemenceau preferred to discuss the peace alone, without a large input from their own governments. This would lead to future political problems for all of them.
• Clemenceau agreed with Lloyd George on many matters apart from the Middle East and Turkey (he wanted a larger Syria and part of the former Ottoman Empire for France).
• Clemenceau was happy with the final version of the Treaty although admitted it was not perfect, preferring something more severe for Germany.
• Marshal Foch was critical of the Treaty as it did not go far enough in punishing Germany. He argued that Clemenceau, who he never forgave, ‘had lost the peace’.
• Clemenceau tried to build on his popularity by standing for the presidency in 1919. But he withdrew angrily when someone else ran too…he expected to run unopposed.

Germany

• When the Supreme Council (France, USA, Britain and Italy) met to discuss the post-war settlement for Germany, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a factor in their attitude towards the defeated nation. This forced Russia to give up huge areas of land, including Poland, Finland, the Baltic countries and had to recognise the independence of Ukraine. It also lost them 30% of its population and much of its coal, iron and oil.
• The final version of the Treaty of Versailles was criticised before it was published. Portugal, China and Italy all complained about their own causes hoping to get last-minute changes.
• Marshall Foch (commander of the Allied forces from 1917-18) argued that Germany was not being punished sufficiently and that it would return to Northern France within twenty years but be more successful.
• Whilst the Treaty was being printed, 180 German experts, diplomats and secretaries were in a hotel waiting to pour over documents and ‘advise’ changes (they had brought crates of documents to use in negotiations but they were never used – the peacemakers did not invite them to discuss, only sign). They were not treated the same as other representatives, their train slowing down when passing the French battlefields and their luggage was thrown into the hotel courtyard where they had to carry it themselves. They also worked with loud music, believing that they were being listened to by the French (they were right!).
• The German delegation was headed by Brockdorff-Rantzau. He put German faith into Wilson and the Americans, believing that they wanted an economically strong Germany for their own prosperity, it would also block Bolshevik expansionism and the Armistice was signed, according to Germany, with the understanding that the peace treaty would be based on the Fourteen Points. Furthermore, as Wilson had suggested Germany become a republic, and she had done so, Brockdorff-Rantzau thought the US would be sympathetic to their cause.
• The German delegation believed they would have to pay something as part of the Treaty but not for the cost of the war. They thought they would be a member of the new League of Nations, keep its colonies and the principle of self-determination would be upheld for them.
• During the final negotiations, the delegation tried to find out what was being discussed. One American source said that they should follow the US constitution and give the president considerable powers. They did so, this becoming part of the new Weimar constitution.
• In May, when Brockdorff-Rantzau and the German delegation listened to what would happen to their country, he made a speech that was both conciliatory and disrespectful. He remained sitting down throughout and this annoyed Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson.
• When the delegation received the full publication, they were disgusted. They no longer put any trust in Wilson (a US newspaper being told that he was a wicked hypocrite) and shouted their views in the hotel so that the French could hear. Where was the self-determination for the Germans when 13% of their land was taken away? If the German speakers in Austria and Germany want to unite as one, why are they not allowed?
• When the German people heard of the details, there was shock across the country. Why should they alone take responsibility for the war? Most Germans thought the war was a defence against the barbaric Slavs.
• Article 231 became the infamous ‘war-guilt clause’. However, it was only inserted into the Treaty so reparations could be paid. Austria and Hungary both had similar clauses inserted into St. Germain and Trianon respectively. Germany made the clause a focal point of the Treaty, perhaps because it was easy to rally its people against it.
• As the Treaty was read by the world, it brought criticism to those who had written it. Some of the US delegation resigned and the British blamed the Italians and French for the harshness of the Treaty. There were some French critics who argued it was too weak but the population generally thought Clemenceau got the best deal he could.
• The German counter-arguments were given three weeks later (29 May 1919) the British and Americans were impressed. Lloyd George actually wanted to rethink the entire Treaty although this was probably political opportunism, and was later criticised by Wilson and Clemenceau for it. Even when discussing changes in early June, Lloyd George was not sure what he wanted and even argued against his own views during the months of negotiation.
• On 16 June, the Germans were given three days to sign the Treaty. Brockdorff-Rantzau left Paris instead and the German people were against signing. In further opposition to the Treaty, the German Navy scuttled (destroyed) most of their own ships so that the Allies could not have them. The Allies threatened a military invasion as a result.
• The German government was in chaos as politicians could not agree to sign or not. Eventually, the centrist politician Matthias Erzberger argued that although the Treaty was terrible for the country, at least they could survive and find a way to rebuild and prosper. But Brockdorff-Rantzau did not believe the Allied threat and so there was no agreement.
• A German government under President Ebert was put together and they reluctantly agreed to sign the Treaty (Ebert actually wanted to resign but was persuaded otherwise). The German army agreed although Field-Marshal Hindenburg preferred an honourable military defeat as opposed to the disgraceful peace offered.
• 28 June was the date of the signing ‘ceremony’, the same as the start of the war in 1914. Clemenceau announced to all ‘bring in the Germans‘ and with trembling hands, two representatives of the government (the minister for transport and for foreign affairs) and signed the Treaty. Clemenceau was later criticised for
• Paris then became a party city for a few days whereas, in Germany, flags were lowered to half-mast. The nationalists immediately blamed the politicians for the signing although they had preferred to leave the solution to the Treaty to them alone! Hitler, only a minor figure, called it the ‘peace of shame’.
• MacMillan – the Weimar Republic never recovered from the double burden of signing the Armistice and Treaty of Versailles. The assassination of Erzberger in 1921 by two former army officers was an example of how some people never forgave the politicians.
• The Diktat (dictated peace) was blamed for everything that went wrong in Germany. People ignored the huge cost of the war and instead saw the Treaty as the reason for all economic problems. Importantly, the reparations figure eventually paid was much smaller than the people thought it was. In reality, Germany was asked to pay half of the £6.6 billion and even then, by 1932 the country had only paid £1.1 billion. This was actually less than France paid after their defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.
• Furthermore, Germany did not abide by the rules of the Treaty very much. Flying clubs sprang up across the country so that the Luftwaffe had trained pilots in the 1930s. The German armed forces trained with the Soviets, the Prussian police force increasingly resembled an army, and 40% of the 100 000 limit of the army were trained as non-commissioned officers (the Treaty stipulated they could only have 4000 officers but had no such limit for NCO’s).
• Germany was also able to develop weapons as the factories in Sweden and the Netherlands were part-owned by Germans.

Hungary

See Other Treaties

Italy

• Italy demanded lands in Africa, the Middle East and Europe but it was the latter, particularly the port of Fiume, which caused the most problems. Italy believed she should have the port city because of the promises made in the 1915 Treaty of London. As Wilson detested secret treaties and wanted to uphold the idea of self-determination, he fell out with the Italians over this issue.
• By 1919, Italy owed its allies ￡700 million and inflation was higher than any country except Russia. The army had collapsed at the Battle of Caporetto, with the political and military leadership being blamed, and even being on the winning side in 1918 was called a mutilated victory. Prime Minister Orlando knew that Italy was on the verge of revolution so he decided to prove the people that the war had been worth fighting for…with the spoils of war! He used the phrase ‘Treaty of London plus Fiume’ to get support from Italian nationalists, much to the annoyance of his allies.
• The Treaty of London by 1919 had become an embarrassment to the British and the French, regretting their promises made to Italy. As Wilson was not bound by this treaty, it made discussions over Italy’s war gains difficult to agree upon.
• The US-Italian relations were far from good for the talks in Paris. One key episode was Italy’s policy towards the Slavs in Yugoslavia. US food aid was sent to Italy to administer to the Slavs but it was purposely held up to gain leverage over the country. Wilson ordered the US to halt the aid to Italy as a result.
• Furthermore, both Britain and France saw Italy’s efforts in winning the war as insignificant in comparison to their own (in their view – why give them Austro-Hungarian lands promised in the Treaty of London when their attacks during the war failed?).
• As Italy was a geographical rival to France, Orlando tried with some success to develop better relations with Lloyd George. Clemenceau had a more difficult relationship with Orlando especially after Italy refused to support France over their claims for the Saar region.
• Italy used force to try to take lands from Austria-Hungary and stir up trouble in the Balkans so that the embryonic Yugoslavia could be destroyed. Italy wanted control of the eastern side of the Adriatic as it possessed better harbours.
• She also wanted influence over Ethiopia, parts of Somalia and Kenya. But whereas the British and French took lands in the Middle East and decided what should happen to the former German colonies, Italy received little outside of Europe.
• Italy received the Brenner Pass, South Tyrol (despite the population being mainly German), the Trentino (lands promised in the Treaty of London). But not acquiring Fiume became a huge issue for Italy, especially the nationalists. They held it after the war as part of the Armistice agreements but were reluctant to give it up. Orlando, probably influenced by domestic feeling, threatened to walk out of the conference if the city was not given to Italy. His foreign minister, Sonnino, was so bitter he said he regretted even negotiating Italy’s entry into the war.
• But the allies, especially Wilson, would not budge. On 21 April 1919, Wilson wrote a letter to the Italian people (published in a newspaper) to remind them of how much the country had already achieved in Paris. The aim was to win over the people and go over the heads of Orlando and Sonnino, but it had the opposite effect and the Italian representatives left the conference (returning eleven days later in May). This caused chaos in Paris and could have destroyed the Treaty. Fortunately for the allies, delegates from Italy signed the Treaty in June although not Orlando – his government fell in the same month, the nationalists becoming more powerful in the country as a result. D’Annunzio symbolised this by invading Fiume in September 1919.
• Britain, France, and the US did not stop this invasion. It was left to Italy and Yugoslavia to sort out the problem themselves. They did so with the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920, and Fiume was made a free state.
• Although DiAnnunzio’s invasion was ultimately a failure, Mussolini learned how valuable the use of force was and marched on Rome in 1922. And he also annexed Fiume in 1924.

Japan

• Japan fought on the side of the Allies during the First World War. It had one of the largest navies in the world although had not taken a large part in defeating Germany.
• The peacemakers gave Japan five delegates, the same as the Great Powers, but generally ignored them.
• Japan gained from the First World War. It was able to increase production and trade for the war, merchant shipping increased hugely as a result, and they gained German colonies in the east.
• Britain was concerned that Japan had grown too powerful in Asia and was a threat to their own interests in the region (Hong Kong, Singapore) and trade in general. However, in return for Japan’s naval assistance in the war, she supported their claims to the Pacific Islands.
• The US was in a similar position as they had recently acquired the Philippines. In taking this archipelago, they also took Guam and Hawaii as important bases to protect the supply lines to the Philippines. In 1919, Wilson was concerned that the British deal (also supported by France, Italy and Russia at the time) threatened US interests. In fact, he stated that the deal was between Britain and Japan only so it did not affect US policy at all. Furthermore, they ‘correctly’ foresaw that the many Pacific Islands could become naval bases or strongholds for the Japanese in the future.
• France did not want to give in to Japan’s demands because their military contribution and casualty lists were insignificant compared to their own.
• Japan feared it was not treated as other major powers in the world. They understood their lack of natural resources and how the western imperialists could take advantage of this one day – cutting off their trade. One strategy was to copy the imperialists by acquiring an empire of their own – holding onto the former German colonies and taking Shantung. Another strategy was to show to the world that they were seen as equal to the white powers, they would ask for a racial equality clause to be inserted into the covenant of the League of Nations.
• A factor in this clause was that Japanese people were treated badly in the US (segregated schools) and they found it difficult to emigrate to North America; even impossible to get into Australia.
• Japanese people rallied behind this policy and the louder they shouted, the more the delegates in Paris pushed for the clause.
• Wilson was a liberal president but did not see the Japanese as equals. Margaret MacMillan argues that he did not do very much for black people in the US so it was unlikely he would for Japanese. However, he was also under pressure from people in the US as the anti-Japanese feeling was strong at the time.
• The loudest opposition to the racial equality clause came from the British Empire delegation, especially Australia. This put Britain in a difficult position, it wanted good relations with Japan but could not afford to annoy its dominions.
• Many across the world supported the amendment but the West feared the repercussions on their colonies or their voting public (especially the US). A vote was held which supported the amendment but Wilson explained that because there was still vehement opposition to it, it should not pass. Japan did not challenge this ruling in Paris but the media at home certainly did. The idea that the League was an organisation of equals was ruined. It was also a factor in Japan not trusting the West and pursuing more nationalist policies.
• However, Japan did not lose at Versailles. She threatened to leave the conference because of the racial equality clause (arguably this could have been a bluff). As Italy had already done so, the Big Three could not afford another Great Power to do the same. Consequently, Japan knew she was in a strong position to demand concessions over China. See China
• Japan’s results were mixed after Paris. They had gained territory and influence in China but had stirred nationalism and communism there. Furthermore, the West saw them as the ‘Yellow Prussia‘, ambitious, militaristic and likely to cause war in the future.

Poland

• Some of the issues facing those at the Paris Peace Conference were how large should Poland be, could it be a large area of land to deter the rise of Bolshevism, and how much land should be taken from Germany?
• Josef Pilsudski, a Polish general, arrived in Paris in 1918 with the dream of a country (it had not been one since 1815). He had few friends, many enemies, no government, no army, and no defined borders. Three years later, he made a country.
• In this time, he fought six wars. Bolsheviks, Germans, Lithuanians, Slovaks, Czechs, and Ukrainians all fought to prevent Poland’s eventual borders.
• He also faced the task of making Poland one country, there were five currencies, different economies, 66 types of rail for the trains, and many more problems facing him.
• Pilsudski argued for access to the Baltic and the port of Danzig became the focal point of this. It was largely populated by Germans (90%) as it had been theirs since the 1790s. The Big Three were concerned that so many Germans could be forced to live under the government of Poland, this could lead to problems in the future.
• Britain wanted an independent Poland but not to give guarantees for its protection. It would be in a very difficult situation to protect it from Russia or Germany in the future. Furthermore, Lloyd George was concerned that awarding Poland Danzig could prevent Germany from signing the treaty and even creating a new Alsace-Lorraine. Unsurprisingly, Polish diplomats had little time for the UK prime minister.
• The French were great supporters of Poland, preferring a large and powerful counterweight to any future German aggression.
• The US was somewhere in the middle of these two views. But Wilson argued that if Poland was to get Danzig, they may have to give Italy Fiume too.
• The solution was to create a Danzig Corridor which reduced the number of Germans living under a Polish government.

• Upper Silesia had 65% Polish inhabitants and was awarded to Poland as a result. But it was a region with huge natural resources so Germany was against this decision. Despite a plebiscite and a League ruling in 1922, Upper Silesia went to Poland. With Germany losing the Saar and now Upper Silesia, it had little coal.
• At Paris, the Poles were very ambitious in their demands and irritated the Great Powers, they were seen to be too greedy and impractical. They took Lithuania militarily and only lost their hold on the country when the Bolsheviks ousted them 1920 (and gave back her independence). They also tried unsuccessfully to take lands in Russia. Importantly, when they asked the allies in Paris for help, the request was turned down. Even the French, who wanted a powerful Poland, grew tired of their ambitions. But their fighting prevented a Bolshevik advance into eastern Europe (the Treaty of Riga was signed between the two countries in March 1921, giving Poland a border in the east which was far beyond what the peacemakers had recommended).
• German nationalists and liberals were united in their contempt for Poland in taking Danzig. Consequently, there was support for Hitler’s actions in September 1939 in invading Poland and retaking the city.
• Poland had won a great success post-First World War, establishing a large country with many of ‘its’ historical lands reincorporated. However, in doing so they alienated Germany, Russia, and the peacemakers

Turkey

• See Other Treaties

USA

• Woodrow Wilson toured Europe before the conference began in January 1919. He was very popular because of his ‘Fourteen Points’, people saw him as the hero who brought victory and peace to Europe.

• Wilson was very happy with the final version of the Treaty, ‘We have completed in the least time possible the greatest work that four men have ever done’. MacMillan, p. 470

• He thought the Germans had been too optimistic before the document was published and foresaw their reaction to the Treaty.
• The US and British agreed to come to the aid of France if she needed it but even members of Wilson’s delegation were doubtful the idea would get past the Senate.
• Wilson returned to the US with a fight to get the Treaty and membership of the League of Nations ratified. He faced opposition immediately, perhaps because he alienated both Republicans and Democrats by not including them at the outset. He trusted his own judgement and advisors rather than any senior politician in the Senate.
• Rather than negotiate with rivals and political opponents (this may have proved difficult anyway if they sought changes to the Treaty) he decided on an alternative strategy. He was ill, suffering terrible headaches, but went against medical advice to travel across the country seeking public support for his efforts in Paris. Wilson succeeded in doing this but suffered a stroke, paralysing and preventing him from functioning as president again. He died in 1924.

Yugoslavia

• Initially, the peacemakers did not know what to do with the new state of Yugoslavia. Although Italy was the exception, she wanted a small and weak nation on the eastern side of the Adriatic. The USA, no supporter of Italian ambitions, decided to recognise the new country in February 1919, Britain and France in June.
• The Balkans were a problem before the war and they continued to be afterwards. The different people, Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Albanians, Macedonians, Greeks and Rumanians all wanted land and to be self-ruled. Nationalism grew in the Balkans after the war.
• One of the problems the peacemakers faced was how to fulfil the promises they made to Italy via the 1915 Treaty of London. It had stated that land from Slovenia and parts of Dalmatia (eastern Adriatic coast) would be handed over. Serbia sought the latter and relations with the Italians were going to be difficult as a result.
• Serbia paid a heavy price in the First World War, 120 000 dead out of a population of four million. As their protector, Russia could no longer be relied upon the people wanted their own state of Yugoslavia. This would unite Serbia with Croatia and Slovenia, making the country more secure within Europe. The new country was called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, with Serbia in charge (it was not called Yugoslavia until 1929).
• The peacemakers became generally supportive of the new state because of its sacrifices in the war. Moreover, Britain saw the country as bringing some stability to the Balkans. This would allow it to pursue her own interests in other parts of the world.
• France saw the new state as a potential bulwark against future German aggression too.
• One problem was that Orthodox Serbia was in charge of the new country but it was one which contained many Bosnian Muslims. This became a huge problem in the Yugoslav Wars of 1991-2001.

100 Years after the Treaty of Versailles

Other Resources

Khan Academy

TV Documentary, ‘inspired’ by Margaret MacMillan’s book Peacemakers 1919.

UK History website

History Learning

John D Clare – former chief examiner in the UK

Perspectives & Historiography

• ‘Italy’s tactics were irritating, transparent and frequently inept.’ Margaret MacMillan.
• Germany cannot argue, nor can other historians, that it was crushed by a vindictive peace. If it had won, it would have taken Luxembourg, Belgium, parts of the Netherlands and possibly Northern France (see Treaty of Brest-Litovsk). So her complaints were weak. Even after 13% of the land was taken off Germany, she was still the largest European country after Russia. Moreover, the formation of Poland gave Germany a buffer against any Bolshevik expansion. Moreover, Danzig was a problem for Germany but it was not insurmountable. Better relations with Poland would have reduced tension (USA and Alaska are separated by Canada!). Finally, the Treaty was never fully enforced so cannot be to blame for starting the Second World War. It ignores the actions of politicians, diplomats, voters and soldiers from 1919 to 1939 if it did. Margaret MacMillan.
• The Treaty was important in that it launched the League of Nations. This ultimately failed but the ideas, such as international guidelines for labour, and having a global organisation to protect minorities or prosecute war crimes helped make the modern world. Margaret MacMillan.
• According to Sally Marks in Mistakes and Myths: The Allies, Germany, and the Versailles Treaty, 1918–1921, the general Anglo-American view remains that the Treaty of Versailles was responsible for the depression in Germany, the rise of Hitler and a cause of the Second World War.
• German historian Eberhard Kolb argues that Germany was expecting victory in November 1918, not an Armistice and defeat. This made the result of the Treaty even worse.
• The Marxist perspective of the Treaty was that the leading imperial powers of the world plundered a defeated and broken nation for their own gains. Moreover, they paid little attention to the poorer nations, refusing them any real voice or bargaining power.
• Correlli Barnett and Gerhard Weinberg have argued that Germany’s geopolitical position in the east strengthened after the end of the war, as it retained many of its core possessions. It was in stark contrast to the other Axis powers, notably the Austro-Hungarian empire as it broke up entirely. Oxford Learning
• Michael S. Neiburg agrees with the two historians above, the new states of Eastern Europe fought amongst themselves and this made Germany’s position more secure. He also argues that the Treaty pushed Germany closer to the USSR, they were seen as the pariah states and so joined together to share economic and military ideas, culminating in the Treaty of Rapallo in 1922.

• John Maynard Keynes expressed a widely held opinion of the time in arguing that the economic reparations placed on Germany were too harsh. He described it as a “Carthaginian Peace”. It was a reference to the infamous obliteration of that nation by the Roman Empire centuries previously. Keynes believed that the French delegates had pursued this policy as aggressively as possible to ensure their security. Their country had been invaded twice in just fifty years by a jingoistic German state and they had exercised their influence accordingly. Oxford Learning However, MacMillan points out that Keynes may have been annoyed with the peacemakers because he was not involved in the negotiations sufficiently.
• Economists Max Hantke and Mark Spoerer have rejected Keynes’ notion that the economic toll was excessive. They argue that the military restrictions the treaty imposed meant Germany could fully comply with reparation payments. This view is supported by Niall Ferguson. He believes it was also a fundamental mistake by the allies not to properly enforce them post 1919. Oxford Learning
• In the 1930s, Britain adopted the policy of appeasement (see Britain). This was an acknowledgement that the government thought ‘Versailles’ unfair and Germany should be allowed to regain the lands taken away in 1919. Furthermore, it was thought that stability in Central Europe was more likely with a strong Germany.
• However, as Hitler became more aggressive, the feeling grew that Germany was emulating the pre-1914 aggressive foreign policy (Prussian militarism in the eighteenth-century too). Consequently, the Treaty became fairer as they were seen as being responsible for starting the war.
• World War One reparations were not as unfair as you think
• David Wileman explains in this lecture the historiography of this treaty.

Conclusions

• The Treaty of Versailles was judged differently because of the effects of the Great Depression. The nationalists in Germany would not have come to power without the huge economic downturn and one of their key strategies to return their country to former glories was to overturn the Treaty of Versailles. According to their perspective, this was a reason Germany fell into decline in the 1920s and 1930s.
• The Treaty was far from perfect because of the selfish ambitions of the peacemakers and those nations who wanted more and more. Italy, Greece, Poland to name three were too greedy for wealth and power. Britain tried to repeat the Congress of Vienna by establishing a balance of power in Europe whilst it continued to build and maintain its empire. French ambitions